Although DNA testing

DNA testing is an invaluable tool that helps doctors diagnose genetic and inherited
disorders, so they can then determine how to treat them. Genetic testing has only been available in recent times because of breakthroughs in science and technology. The Human Genome Project has made finding genetic disorders easier and, like any other health test, DNA testing also carries certain risks.

Function

1. Testing human DNA helps doctors determine whether or not a patient is at risk of inheriting a disease from his family. The data gathered through the testing procedure is analyzed for the potential of genetic mutations that can lead to increased risk of certain diseases. Genetic testing allows for more timely treatment of the disease, which may prolong the lifespan of the patient with an inherited disease.
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Types

1. Newborns and fetuses can be tested for genetic diseases. Newborn babies are routinely tested for genetic diseases such as phenylketonuria, which prevents the babies from being able to metabolize crucial amino acids. Fetuses are also tested for chromosomal abnormalities in order to help parents decide whether or not to abort the fetus if the abnormalities are severe enough. Parents can also be tested to determine whether or not they carry the gene for an inherited disorder, such as hemophilia, in order to calculate the chances of the child of having the genetic disorder.

How it Works

2. Genetic tests are done with hair, skin and blood samples or on amniotic fluid for fetal testing. The tests detect protein, gene and chromosomal abnormalities. Interpreting the results is rather difficult, even for professionally trained medical personnel. Mutations naturally occur in DNA. In order for doctors to interpret the results, family medical history must be taken into account. Even if test results show a genetic disease, it is impossible for doctors to be able to guess how severe the disease will be.

History

3. Genetic testing was made possible with the start of the Human Genome Project, which maps where genetic disorders are located on chromosomes. When the entire human genome is mapped, it will help scientists even more in testing for genetic disorders because more about human DNA will be known. The project uses landmarks on each gene that help doctors find the location of the cause of genetic disorders.

Drawbacks

4. Genetic testing does not have many drawbacks, but there are some considerations to take into account when getting tested. The testing itself does not involve many physical risks, but the results have greater implications. The diagnosis of a genetic disease may cause psychological stress. Also, discrimination in obtaining health insurance is a concern. Health insurance companies may not want to insure an individual with a lifelong genetic condition. While the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act in the United States ensures that people will not be discriminated against, other nations may not protect genetic confidentiality the same way.

How to Have a DNA Test Legally

Have a DNA Test Legally

Although DNA testing was an expensive undertaking some years ago, with costs reaching thousands of dollars, today it is far more affordable and accessible to those requiring test results. The cost of tests varies depending on the sort of procedure being performed and could range from $400 to $2,000. Today, the accessibility of DNA testing has grown to the extent that some pharmacies and businesses even offer consumers a testing kit, which can be used in the comfort of their own homes. However, in order to ensure that a DNA test is carried out successfully forlegal purposes, individuals need to follow certain definite steps.

Instructions

1, Call the DNA Diagnostics Center at 1-800-613-5768 (an AABB-accredited laboratory) and find out where the nearest sample collection facility in your region is.

2, Provide government-issued identification for the adult (or adults) involved in the test and show a form of identification for minors, such as a birth certificate or Social Security card.

3, Have your photograph taken and your fingerprint collected.

4, Fill out a client identification and consent form. For minors ensure that the consent form is signed by a legal guardian.

How to Make a DNA Model Out of Food

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) carries the genetic code for organisms, and is a topic of scientific study at many grade levels. Students are often assigned to make DNA models to help them learn about the make-up and structural characteristics of DNA. A DNA model can be constructed with toys, food, candy or common household items. Use a model of DNA to exhibit a sample of nucleotides on a double helix.

Instructions

1

Make pastry dough balls in two colors. Put 14 tbsp. of softened butter into a deep salad bowl. Add 2 cups of all purpose flour and 1/2 tsp. of salt. Blend with a pastry cutter until it forms small crumbles. Add 4 tbsp. of cold water, one at a time and mash with a fork until the dough collects into a ball and cleans the sides of the bowl. Form 30 1-inch balls. Dye the balls with food coloring making 16 one color and 14 a contrasting color.

2

Dye eight plain-colored uncooked penne tubes to create a fourth color for the pasta to represent the DNA chemical bases. Colored penne typically comes in three colors, one being the natural yellow pasta color.

3

Break uncooked spaghetti into 24 4 1/2-inch sticks. Break off another 36 3-inch sticks.

4

Slip two different-colored penne tubes over three 4 1/2-inch spaghetti sticks. Align the penne tubes in the center of the sticks and poke the ends of the sticks into two dough balls of the same color to construct the first rung of the double helix.

5

Set up the spiraling effect for the double helix with slanted rails. Hold two 3-inch spaghetti sticks together and push them through a dough ball of the color not used on the rung. Align the ball in the center of the sticks. Place one end of the spaghetti into a dough ball on the first rung so that it leans slightly forward. Construct another rail with two 3-inch spaghetti sticks and a dough ball and slip it into the other dough ball of the first rung so that it leans slightly away.

6

Build a second ladder rung with the other two colors of penne on three 4 1/2-inch spaghetti sticks between two colored dough balls. Use the same color dough balls as the first rung. Set the second rung on the ladder by piercing the slanted spaghetti sticks of the rails through the dough balls and the ends of the rung. The second rung should be offset so it is not parallel with the first.

7

Use the same color dough balls for all the rung sides, and the other color for all the rails. Continue slanting the rail sticks alternately to make the ladder spiral as it rises.

8

Build the twisted ladder with eight rungs. Stick two 3-inch sticks into the bottom of the dough balls of the bottom rung and stand them up in the remaining dough in the salad bowl for upright support.

Lie-Detecting Methods

Lie-Detecting Methods

When it comes to lie detection, the most commonly used method is the polygraph test. What many people do not realize is there are many different lie detection methods, some simple and some complex. The study of lying and lie detection is intricate, and these methods are the products of years of research and studying.

Facial Analysis

Facial analysis is a lie detection method that involves carefully watching and interpreting facial expressions. While people who are lying are usually able to control the majority of their facial expressions, quick, short-duration facial movements can express the underlying emotions a person is attempting to conceal. These are called micro-expressions, and this detection method is about 80% effective. The problem with this detection method is that the analysis and reading process is time-consuming. A lie detection interview must be videotaped, and then an expert has to analyze the liar's face frame by frame. In the future, it may be possible for computers to automatically analyze expressions, which would make facial analysis a powerful detection method for any situation.

Reaction Time

Research has shown that the act of telling a lie takes more effort and mental concentration than telling the truth. This is because when telling a lie, a person has to create the lie and make sure it doesn't contradict anything he has already said. Telling the truth just involves recounting something that has happened. The extra thinking and creating that comes with telling lies takes time, and even a quick-thinking liar might hesitate slightly. Experts who have been trained in picking up on lies might notice discrepancies in reaction time that can be indicators of lying. This method is not applicable in situations when a person has already created and rehearsed the lies she is telling. While marking reaction times can be effective when the subject is taken off-guard, the reaction time method is not as accurate when the subject has had time to prepare.

Statement Content Analysis

This method involves analyzing a written statement for verb tenses, syntax, emphasis and word choices. For example, if a subject uses past tense to describe a missing person, it may be an indication that the subject knows that the missing person is no longer living. When lying, people may gloss over important information and then write extensively about certain details of no significance in an attempt to draw attention away from the lie. The effectiveness and accuracy of this method has not been determined, but police and other investigators sometimes use this method to get leads or eliminate suspects early in a case.

Brain Imaging

MRI, magnetic resonance imaging, is a medical diagnostic tool used to take images of the inside of the body. The world of lie detecting has found another use for MRIs. Investigators can use functional MRIs to track blood flow and use in the brain. When people are lying, they are thinking creatively, and therefore using a different portion of the brain than when telling the truth. Brain imaging shows when certain lobes of the brain, such as those associated with creative thinking, are in use. This activity is an indicator of lying. The research on this method of lie detection has been promising, but investigators do not yet use brain imaging as a method of lie detection.

Thermal Imaging

Thermal imaging uses thermal cameras and detectors to pick up on subtle changes in body temperature. Typically, lying triggers a slight nervous reaction in people, and nervous reactions include a slight increase of body temperature, especially in areas around the eyes. Thermal cameras pick up on even the slightest changes in body temperature and show when someone is lying or having an emotional reaction to a stimulus. This method is fairly effective, but not commonly used because thermal imaging cameras and the other necessary tools are expensive.

Intradermal Techniques

Intradermal injection.

Intradermal injections are a method of introducing a substance (allergen, vaccine or other) under the top layer of the skin. This method is used most often in tuberculosis screenings, also known as purified protein derivative, or PPD testing. Another common use for intradermal injection is allergen testing, where a small amount of suspected allergen is injected. Both PPD and allergen testing requires monitoring for a reaction. A flu vaccine that was approved in early 2009 for use in Europe also requires intradermal delivery.

Intradermal injections are a method of introducing a substance (allergen, vaccine or other) under the top layer of the skin. This method is used most often in tuberculosis screenings, also known as purified protein derivative, or PPD testing. Another common use for intradermal injection is allergen testing, where a small amount of suspected allergen is injected. Both PPD and allergen testing requires monitoring for a reaction. A flu vaccine that was approved in early 2009 for use in Europe also requires intradermal delivery.

Preparation

1. Most substances used for intradermal injection are refrigerated prior to use. Allow the substance to warm to room temperature before injecting unless otherwise noted on packaging. Attach the needle to the syringe and draw up the substance to be injected. The most common needle used for intradermal injection is the 26 gauge. Lengths vary, but are generally 1/2 inch or smaller. Typically, a tuberculin syringe or 1 milliliter syringe is used. Other items you will need include a cotton ball or pad, alcohol wipes and gloves.
   
   Choose your site carefully. The site should be free from bruising, rash or other lesions. Intradermal injections can be performed at almost any subcutaneous site and also in the inner forearm and along the shoulder blades. Depending on the type and reason for the injection, there may be a required site. Check guidelines prior to performing injection.

Injection

2. Wash hands with soap and water and put on gloves. Clean the area for the injection thoroughly with alcohol. Allow the alcohol to dry before performing the injection. Stabilize the skin around the injection site, but do not stretch or move the skin. Uncap the needle and position it with the bevel up. Insert the needle at a shallow angle, approximately 15 degrees. Just under the skin, you should feel some resistance. If not, the needle is likely too deep and should be pulled back until the bevel is barely under the skin. Press in the plunger injecting the substance. A wheal or bubble should appear at the injection site.

After Care

3. Remove the needle at the same angle in which it was inserted. Using a cotton ball or pad, cover the area until any wound weeping stops but do not press or rub. Caution the patient to avoid rubbing the area. If this is an allergen test, the patient should remain close by and the site will need monitoring for reaction. Tuberculin tests are generally examined in 24 to 48 hours after administration.

Cautions

4. It is possible to tear the skin during an intradermal injection. Keep the needle as steady as possible and caution the patient to remain still during administration.
   
   Monitor all patients for potential anaphylactic reaction to the substance being used. Note any rash, difficulty breathing, dizziness or swelling of the face or hands. Be prepared to treat anaphylaxis immediately.
   
   Always follow your organization's guidelines for the administration of medications. Verify the patient, substance expiration date and physician orders prior to administrating any medication.

Dog Allergy Blood Test

A blood test can check for allergies in dogs.

It's common for dogs to have allergies. A dog can be allergic to food, pollen, mold, ingredients commonly found in shampoos and flea bites, among other things. When a dog inhales or ingests an allergen he may itch and scratch, his nose may run and he may develop redness and swelling in a specific area on his body. A blood test is a common method for detecting allergies in dogs.

Purpose

A blood test can identify antigen-induced antibodies in the dog's blood. These essentially cause a reaction in the dog when he's exposed to an allergen. The test results help veterinarians prepare a treatment plan.

Testing

Pet Education recommends performing blood tests when the dog's allergies are at their worst to ensure a more accurate result. In addition, it suggests placing the dog on a homemade, hypoallergenic diet---one high in protein and carbohydrates---prior to administering the test. The diet helps to eliminate possible food allergies affecting the dog, so atopic allergies caused by environmental irritants can easily be identified. A complete exam of the pet is required to rule out symptoms related to other skin conditions or fleas.

Types of Tests

The two standard allergy blood tests are radioallergosorbent (RAST) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Although the tests are alike in many ways, most veterinarians prefer ELISA, because it provides a more accurate diagnosis. Each one draws a blood sample from the dog, which is sent to a lab for screening. The screening tests the blood for reaction to certain environmental irritants, such as pollen, grass and mold. While the test also can assess possible food allergies, its results are less reliable. It can take several weeks for pet owners to know the results of the tests.

Benefits

The blood test identifies the allergens, so the dog can receive proper treatment and live an allergy-free life. An atopic dog can be treated with regular allergy shots that contain small amounts of the irritant to help him build tolerance and diminish its effects upon exposure. Steroids and antihistamines can lessen symptoms of seasonal allergies. Knowing what the dog is allergic to enables dog owners to limit or avoid the dog's exposure to the irritant, preventing an allergic reaction altogether.

Considerations

Blood tests today are more accurate than those used in the past, but these tests are still subject to false positive results---meaning they can indicate your dog is allergic to irritants he may not be. For this reason, some veterinarians prefer other methods to test for allergies.
Nevertheless, allergy testing is a valuable diagnostic tool for pets suffering from seasonal or year-round allergies when the dog doesn't respond to other efforts such as food trials. It may be necessary to seek out a veterinarian trained in allergy testing and repeated testing may be required to evaluate changes to irritant sensitivity in the dog over his lifetime